Impact Of Organisational Culture In The Hairdressing Sector Commerce Essay

Impact Of Organisational Culture In The Hairdressing Sector Commerce Essay Culture is quite difficult to define, when we speak of culture we know what it is and what / how it is manifested in an organisation but a clear, unambiguous definition eludes us! This is because culture has different meanings, depending on life experiences, background, religion, belief and values. Nonetheless, there are several influential writers on culture including Hofstede, Trompenaars, Hampden Turner, Schein, Ouchi, Schneider and Barsoux, Deal and Kennedy and Handy, whose work is still recognised in contemporary organisations. However, Handy, described culture in organisations as the way we do things around here. These things are accepted norms and values of an organisation, developed over time into expected behaviour patterns. They generally emanate from top management level of the Organisation; but this is not always the case (Managing in Organisation, ABE Study Manual, 2008). Even though it is reasonable to infer that culture can influence behaviour, this relationship is over-simplified by strong culture models. According to Guy S. Saffold, III, (1988), if researchers are to precisely examine the link between culture and performances, they must assess other internal processes that affect performance. Although, the literature on organisational culture and its correlation with business performance is rich and diverse, there are only a few empirical studies that profoundly explored this relationship. Furthermore, these studies simply focused on the impact on culture on medium to large organisation but few or little has focused specifically on small businesses in the hairdressing sector. For this reason, this project will seek to Assess organisational culture using several theoretical frameworks Evaluate if there is a link between organisational culture and performance in small hairdressing businesses Identify the advantages and disadvantages of having a strong culture in hairdressing business Introduction It is not the physically powerful, hasty and most ferocious who survive. It is the most flexible Charles Darwin Organisations operate in a very unpredictable environment; hence survival depends on the organisations ability to exploit resources; collaborate and adjust. There are extensive demonstrations (Kotter and Heskitt, 1992) that strong cultures support performance by creating value to stakeholders through consistency and high quality goods and services. Deshpandà © and Webster (1989) by exploring several studies in organisational behavior, sociology, and anthropology, defined organisational culture as a pattern of shared values and beliefs that aid individuals understand organisational functioning and thus provide them with the norms for behavior in the organisation (p. 4). Following these and other authors (e.g., Chatman and Jehn, 1994), organisational culture is conceptualized and quantified in terms of widely shared and strongly held values. The elements of organisational culture range from basic assumptions through values and behavioral norms to actual patterns of behavior (Rousseau, 1990). Values typically act as the defining elements of a culture, and norms, symbols, rituals, and other cultural activities revolve around them (Enz 1988). When the members of a social unit share values, an organisational culture or value system can be said to exist (Weiner 1988). According to (Denison, 1984), if an organisation possesses a strong culture by exhibiting a well-integrated and effective set of specific values, beliefs, and behaviors, then it will perform at a higher level of productivity. On the other hand (Kotter Heskitt 1992) concluded that the statement that a strong culture is the basis for outstanding performance appears to be incorrect. Burt et al (1999) agreed with Kotter and Heskitt to an extent but carried their analysis further. They suggest that the relationship between culture and performance depends upon the degree of rivalry. Their research showed that culture is important depending on the competitiveness of the market. They believed that market and culture go hand in hand. If firms have low rivalry in the market then strong culture is not an advantage. Furthermore in some markets where there is competition there is still no correlation between culture and performance. Equally, (Sorenson, 2002) believed that strong cultures often hinders flexibility which is required for survival especially during sporadic transformations, such as we face currently, organisations with strong culture are most often crippled by their own organisational DNA. Whether or not culture is an economical advantage depends upon the market situation. In the retail sector, culture may be a competitive asset. In a multifaceted market, culture appears to have no effect on economic performance (Douglas N. Ross, 2002). It all depends. However, gaining a profound understanding of culture is essential in order to find out whether there is a link between organisational culture and performance. The next chapter begins with an overview of culture. An overview of organisational culture The term organisational culture was used for the first time in the academic literature by Pettigrew in 1979 in the journal Administrative Science Quarterly. Organisational culture was used to explain the economic successes of Japanese firms over American firms by motivating workers who were committed to a common set of core values, beliefs and assumptions (Denison, 1984). One of the most important reasons that explain the interest in organisational culture is the assumption that certain organisational cultures lead to an increase in organisational financial performance. According to Peters and Waterman (1982) successful organisations possess certain cultural traits of excellence. Ouchi (1981) showed a positive relationship between organisational culture and productivity. We have seen many definitions of culture, earlier in the analysis, however, Edgar Scheins defined organisational culture more specifically as the basic assumption and beliefs that are shared by members of an organisation, that operates unconsciously and define in a basic taken-for-granted approach, the routine that build ups over time. In other words, culture is about that which is taken for granted but nonetheless contributes to how group of people respond and behave in relations to the issues they face. It therefore has important influences on the development and change of organisational strategy (Johnson and Scholes, 2008). According to Johnson and scholes (2008) , the culture of an organisation is often concevied as consisting of four layers which would be disucussed in Fig.1.below. Fig.1 The four layers as described by Johnson and Scholes (2008) are Firstly, values are easily identifiable in an organisation, and are often documented statements about an organisation mission, objectives or strategies. However, they can be vague. Secondly, beleifs are more specific but again they can typically be discerned in how people talk about issues in the organisation. Thirdly, behaviors are the day to day way in which an organistion operates and can be seen by people both inside the organisation. This includes the work routines, how the organisation is structured and controlled and softer issues around symbolic behaviors. Finally, taken for granted assumption or paradigms are the core of an organsational culture. They are the facets of an organisations life which people find difficult to identify and explain. The paradigm can underpin successful strategies by providing a basis of common understanding in an organisation, but can also be a major problem (Johnson and Scholes, 2008). Similar conceptions of culture are offered by Dandridge et al. (1980), Pettigrew (1979), as well as Trice and Beyer (1984). Schein (1990) suggests that cultures are created through the way organisations have reacted to important incidents in the past and have thus evolved certain norms, as well as through the identification of organisational members with their leaders. As such, organisational cultures are perpetuated through the process of socialization of new members into the organisation. Hofstede (1980) identified four dimensions of organisational culture: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism /collectivism and masculinity / femininity. Later, Hofstede (1998:238) defined organisational culture as a concept that has the following features: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ holistic (describing the synergy); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ historically determined (reflecting the past,); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ related to the things such a customs and symbols, (these are studied by anthropologist). à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ socially constructed (moulded and preserved by the collection of individuals who collectively form the organisation); à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ soft, and; à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ difficult to change. This overview on culture provides useful insight in understanding culture from a theoretical standpoint which would be useful in this research analysis. Literature Review It is arguable that the academic acceptance of culture, without the usual bickering and scepticism associated with new concepts, is a major indication of the perceived importance of the concept (Alvesson, 1990). However, this is not to infer that there is consensus on the meaning and relevance of the concept. On the contrary, there is widespread disagreement on the definition and scope of the organisational culture concept (Ogbonna and Harris, 1998a). However, the link between organisational culture and high performance in an organisation has been very debateable; because there is little empirical evidence to suggest a direct link between culture and an organisational performance especially in small businesses. Of course failure to establish an empirical link does not mean that no such link exists. According to (Skà ¶ldberg, 1990), empirical study in the area is very difficult to carry out. Not only is culture difficult to capture but so is performance. While it has been suggested that culture accounts for the economic performance of various countries (Hofstede, 1980; Hofstede and Bond, 1988), the idea of corporate culture also serves to provide a basis for understanding the differences that may exist between successful companies operating in the same national culture (Schein, 1990). Peters and Waterman (1982), for example, believed that successful organisations possess certain cultural traits of excellence. Ouchi (1981) presented a similar relationship between corporate culture and increased productivity, while (Deal and Kennedy 1982) argued that the performance of an organisation is dependent on the degree to which the values of the culture are widely shared, that is, are strong Nevertheless, the claim that organisational culture is linked to performance is founded on the perceived role that culture can play in generating competitive advantage (Scholz, 1987). Reed and DeFillippi, (1990) added that sustainable competitive advantage arises from the creation of organisational competencies which are both superior and imperfectly imitable by competitors. Similarly, (Bryan Adkins, 2004) suggests that culture does matter, and a strong, effective culture will outperform a weak culture every time. In a study done by (Coogan Partners Apos, 2005) they concluded also that companies who out-perform their competitors have specific cultural differences. Early researchers who link culture to organisational performance are unequivocal in their claims. An illustration of this is derived from the works, (Deal and Kennedy, 1982; Ouchi, 1981; Pascale and Athos, 1981; Peters and Waterman, 1982) who argue that successful organisations are distinguished by their ability to promote cultural values which are consistent with their chosen strategies. Although this view met with initial popularity in the 1980s, the principal tenets of the argument have been subjected to extensive criticism from writers such as (Legge, 1994; Ogbonna, 1993; Willmott, 1993). By the 1990s, researchers assessing the links between culture and performance were more cautious. For example, Gordon and DiTomaso (1992) and Denison (1990) both propose that there is a link between certain organisational culture characteristics and performance but each add a number of conditions. In particular, they note that culture will remain linked with superior performance only if the culture is able to adapt to changes in environmental conditions. Besides, the culture must not only be strong as suggested by writers such as Deal and Kennedy 1982, Ouchi, 1981 and Peters and waterman, 1982) but it must also have unique qualities which cannot be imitated. However, more recently, it has been suggested that the relationship between culture and performance, is fragile (Ogbonna and Harris: Leadership style organisational culture and performance 769 (Hop et al., 1992; Lewis, 1994; Lim, 1995; Ray, 1986; Willmott, 1993). Sorenson, (2002) argued that continuous change; such as we encounter presently, strong cultured organisations are most often crippled by their own organisational DNA. According to (Dean Mcfarlin), when organisation with well-defined culture is operating in somewhat steady milieu, their core competences and strategies are in alignment with the business objectives. In such environments, well structured cultures enable an organisation to function like new machines, sailing down by outstanding performance. That said, if the environment becomes extremely unstable, companies must become innovative and efficiently exploit resources to stay on top. However, companies with well-built cultures may find it difficult to adapt to such extremely unpredictable situation. A well-defined culture makes it easy for employees to clutch onto the existing status quo and, simultaneously, less willing and enthusiastic about exploring new ways of performing the task. The underlying principle is that a strong organisational culture may be something of a two-fold sword. When you believe in the existing culture of the organisation, it becomes hard to replace them with new id eas even if it a source of competitive disadvantage. Some researchers believed that strong cultures may, however, impose a level of stability on organisations, and such stability has mixed implications for performance. Denison and Mishra (1995) found that stability traits such as a firms mission, consistency, and normative integration, were related to its profitability. Specifically, organisations with strong cultures had greater returns on investments, but only in the short run; after three years the relationship between cultural consistency and performance became negative (Denison, 1990). Sorensen found that strong culture organisations were more financially successful in stable environments and less successful in dynamic environments. Thus, while cultural strength and stability may enhance organisational performance in the short run and in stable environments, they may also inhibit an organisations ability to change, adapt, or innovate. Finally it is not possible to say that organisational culture in general or a specific type of culture has a clear and simple effect on performance but this does not mean that there is no connection between culture (however defined) and performance; on a general level there certainly is. Whipp et al. (1989: 582) believed that elements of culture may supply vital links between the rational aspects of policy and the subjective, less tangible features of employees behaviour exactly because of the way values pervade an enterprise. Propositions of how culture brings about distinct outcomes, however, often seem problematic. Either the causal link is speculative and uncertain or it is difficult to separate culture from outcome. Some of the authors treated in some depth above (Schein and Louis), run into problems when they claim correlations between organisational culture and what they treat as other elements. However it is difficult, even misleading, to say that the culture as a whole has been a significant cause of financial returns. Despite the claims for a link between organisational culture and performance is very rich and diverse, few studies appear to have actually examined the existence as well as the nature of this relationship. Strong cultures and its influence on performance are questionable in the current dynamic environment, besides some theorists query the universality of a culture-performance link. Research design and Methodology The subject of organisational culture and its influence on performance has attracted extensive interest from many scholars, students and researchers alike, but their interest has focused extensively on medium to large businesses but little has focused directly on the influence of organisational culture on the performance of small businesses, hence my interest in the subject matter. This research would be conducted using both primary and secondary research methods of data collection. The primary method proposed is semi-structured interview and the secondary methods would be text books and journal articles. After careful analysis of past literature on culture and performance, qualitative research design such as interview was clearly appropriate. Consequently, a sample of 30 businesses in the hairdressing industry would be selected via the utilisation of a systematic random selection procedure with appropriate units to be selected on a variety of criteria, including company turnover, date of registration, and number of employees. In order to limit potential measurement error, responses would be required from key Personnel, knowledgeable in a variety of tactical and strategic activities (Bowman and Ambrosini, 1997; Snow and Hrebiniak, 1980; Hambrick, 1981; Nayyar, 1992). Undeniably, a plethora of prescriptive articles and books such as Alan Bryan Emma Bell (2003) Business Research Methods, proposed useful suggestions on effective research design, formulation and execution which would be helpful in this research and as a result improve content validity and reliability and most importantly covers ethical issues associated with research. The efficient and effective administration and implementation of the research method (semi-structured interview) is key and the researcher is aware that this could influence the overall success of data generation and the achievement of satisfactory responses (Dillman, 1978; Churchill, 1991; Faria and Dickinson, 1992). A pilot study will be carried out to pre-test the research instrument (Baker 1994: 182-3). The study would be undertaken because it would establish whether the sampling frame and technique is correct. Semi-structured interview would be used; this would allow questioning to be guided as is required also many points that needed to be made clearer would be done much more easily than in something like a mailed questionnaire (Frey and Oishi 1995:03). However, according to (Breakwell, Hammond and Fife-Schaw 1995:238) this technique heavily relies on the respondent being willing to give accurate and complete answers. Additionally, it gives the freedom to explore general views or opinions in more detail. On the other hand this method would be very time consuming and expensive. Finally a tape recorder would also be used so that the data could be referred to at a later date and thus make the analysis more reliable. Conclusion Nowadays, organisations operate in a dynamic environment and they must learn to adapt in order to survive. According to the literature review some researchers such as (Ouchi, 1981) believed that a strong culture is linked to high performance in an organisation. Whereas, Writers such (Kotter Heskitt 1992) concluded that the statement that, well-built culture produce outstanding performance emerge to be completely incorrect. Most interestingly, the culture-performance relationship is seen as a two-fold sword (Dean Mcfarlin). On completion of this project there would be light on whether there is an organisational culture-performance link in small hairdressing businesses. References Bryan, Alan Bell Emma (2003) Business Research Methods: Oxford University Press New York. Johnson, Gerry, Scholes, Kevan Whittington, Richard (2008) Exploring Corporate Strategy: Text and Cases 8th Edition: Pearson Education Limited Association of Business Executives study manual, Managing in Organisation, 2008: ABE RRC Adkins, Bryan, Sr., and Stewart, Cindy, 2004 Shift Organisational Culture to Improve Organisational Performance, viewed on 29th January, 2010 Mcfarlin, Dean 2002, Strong culture can be double-edged sword, Dayton Business Journal, viewed on the 3rd February, 2010 http://www.allbusiness.com/company-activities-management/management-corporate- Culture/5462715-1.html viewed on 29th January, 2010 http://www.denisonconsulting.com/Libraries/Resources/Adkins-2004-Shift-Culture.sflb.ashx, viewed on 29th January, 2010 http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Students/aeo9702.html, viewed on 29th January, 2010 http://www.culturestrategyfit.com, viewed on 29th January, 2010 http://marketing.byu.edu/htmlpages/ccrs/proceedings99/webster.htm, viewed on 29th January, 2010 http://www.jstor.org/pss/258374, viewed on 29th January, 2010 The Academy of Management Review, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Oct., 1988), pp. 546-558 (article consists of 13 pages), viewed on 29th January, 2010 http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-17520695/examining-organizational-culture-and.html, viewed on 29th January, 2010 http://steconomice.uoradea.ro/anale/volume/2008/v4-management-marketing/057.pdf, viewed on 2nd February, 2010

Comparing Criminal Justice Systems: Venezuela vs Denmark

Background Denmark The small, European country of Denmark lies just on the border of the North and Baltic Seas upon the peninsula of Germany, also flanked by Norway and Sweden. It is less than twice the size of Massachusetts at 43,094 square kilometers. The weather is generally temperate, humid and overcast with windy winters and cool summers. Denmark’s natural resources include petroleum, natural gas, fish, salt, limestone, chalk, stone, gravel and sand. Denmark has a population of 5,484,723 with 65. 9% between the ages of 15 and 64 years old. The population growth rate is 0. 95%; they have a birth rate of 10. 71 per 1000 people and a death rate of 10. 25. The migration rate is 2. 49 per 1000 people and the residents have a life expectancy of 78. 13 years. The nationality of the people of Denmark is Dane, or Danish. The Danish ethnic groups include Scandinavian, Inuit, Faroese, German, Turkish, Iranian, and Somali. As far as religious beliefs, 95% of Denmark are Evangelical L utheran, 3% other Christian including Protestant and Roman Catholic and 3% Muslim. The main languages spoken are Danish, Faroese, Greenlandic and German and the predominant second language is English. The Danes have a 99% literacy rate and the school life expectancy is 17 years. (CIA: World Fact book) Venezuela Venezuela is a much larger country of 912,050 square kilometers and population 26,414,816 in Northern South America bordering the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean. It lies flush with Columbia, Brazil and Guyana. It is slightly more than twice the size of California with a tropical climate—hot and humid. 63. 8% of the population is between the ages of 15 and 64 years old. The population growth rate is 1. 98% with a birth rate of 20. 92 per 1000 population and 5. 1 deaths per 1000 population. The net migration rate is -. 084 per 1000 population and their life expectancy from birth is 73. 45 years. Their nationality is Venezuelan and their ethnic groups are Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, Arab, German, African, and indigenous people; Spanish is the official language. 96% of Venezuela is nominally Roman Catholic, 2% Protestant and 2% other religions entirely. 93% of Venezuelans are literate and the average school expectancy rate is 12 years. Law Denmark Denmark is a constitutional monarchy, with the Queen fulfilling the role of head of state, and the government formed out of the parliament. Denmark has a unicameral (single chamber) parliament, with deputies elected through a system of proportional representation, though each member also represents a constituency. (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Demark) The political system of Denmark is a multi-party structure, where several parties are represented in the Parliament. Danish governments are most often minority administrations, governing with the aid of one or more supporting parties. This means that Danish politics are characterized by inter-party compromising. Since 1909 no single party has had the majority of parliamentary seats. A popularly elected parliament, Folketinget, governs the country and the prime minister, the nation's chief political officer, usually comes from the ranks of the majority party. The Faroe Islands and Greenland come under nominal rule from Denmark. (Visit Denmark) The capital of Denmark is Copenhagen and the chief of state is Queen Margrethe II since January 14, 1972, and Heir Apparent Crown Prince Frederik, the eldest son of the monarch. The head of the government is Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen since 27 November 2001. The monarch is hereditary, however following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or the leader of the majority coalition is usually appointed prime minister by the monarch. Supreme Court judges are appointed by the monarch for life terms. Criminal offenses are defined either in the special part of the Criminal Code or in separate statutes. The general conditions for imposing criminal penalties are found in the general part of the Criminal Code which also apply to separate statutes. The sanctions described in the general part of the Criminal Code are the same whether the criminal offense consists of a violation of the Criminal Code or of separate statutes. The substantive Danish criminal law is monistic, meaning that violations of the law never have been divided into categories like felony/misdemeanor, crime/delicts or the like. It does not mean, however, that major offenses are treated in the same manner as petty offenses in all respects. (Ravn, Lene) The age of criminal responsibility is 15 years old. According to the Criminal Code the mere possession of narcotic drugs is criminalized. However, the law is not enforced regarding possession of very small amounts meant for the drug addict's own consumption. Possession and selling is penalized in a special law on drugs containing the possibility of imprisonment for a period of up to two years. Serious cases of trafficking of drugs are punished with imprisonment within a range of one month to ten years according to the Criminal Code. Venezuela Venezuela’s political system is a Federal Republic. The current Venezuelan constitution was adopted in 1999. Important changes were made regarding the structure of the government as well as in human rights and community participation. Since the approval by referendum of this constitution, the government consists of five branches, the Executive, Legislative, Judicial, Citizen and Electoral. The Executive Branch: The President and his cabinet. The President is elected by universal, direct and secret ballot for a six-year term. The President may be re-elected for one additional consecutive term only. Legislative: One chamber National Assembly composed by 165 deputies elected for a five- year term. Deputies may be re-elected for up to one additional consecutive term. Judiciary: The new constitution renamed the Supreme Court as the Supreme Tribunal of Justice. Justices are nominated by the civil society. Final appointment requires the approval of at least two thirds of the legislative branch. The Citizens Branch: Created to safeguard public ethics, to ensure respect for the principle of legality in the Administration, and to assume the defense of human rights. The Ombudsman or Defender of the People, the Attorney General and the Comptroller General form this power The Electoral Branch: This authority is independent from other Government Branches and is appointed by nominations from the civil society. Administrative Division: 22 states, 1 federal district and the federal dependencies. State Governors are elected for a four-year term and may be re-elected for one additional consecutive term only. Most Venezuelans are Roman Catholic. The Constitution guarantees freedom of religion. All faiths have churches and people may worship freely. Venezuela’s people result from the mingling of European, Amerindian, and African cultures. Traditionally a haven for people of all origins, Venezuela received large waves of immigrants from Europe following World War II and from other Latin American and Caribbean nations during the 1970s. (Embassy) The Venezuelan chief of state and head of government is President Hugo Chavez Frias since February 3, 1999. The Executive Vice President Ramon Alonzo Carrizalez Rengifo since 4 January 2008. The Venezuelan Penal Code distinguishes between crimes, punishable by imprisonment, and misdemeanors (faltas), punishable by arrests or fines. In the Penal Code, crimes are classified by major types, as follows: * Crimes against national sovereignty and national security — treason; crimes against national and state government; crimes against international law * Crimes against liberty — crimes against political, personal, religious freedom, etc. Corruption — these are defined in a special anti-corruption law, enacted in 1982 * Crimes against the administration of justice — simulating crimes, false testimony, collusion, concealment, etc. * Crimes against public order — conspiracy to commit crime; incitement to crime; manufacture and carrying of weapons, etc. * For gery — false currency; forged seals, fiscal stamps, documents, passports, licenses, etc. * Crimes against public and private interests — arson, causing floods, etc. gainst public health and nutrition * Crimes against public morals and the family — rape, seduction, prostitution, corrupting minors, adultery, bigamy, etc. * Crimes against persons — homicide, battery, abortion, abandoning children, slander, etc. * Crimes against property — theft, robbery, extortion, kidnapping, fraud, etc. (Birkbeck, Christopher) Until 1998, the age of criminal responsibility was 18. In that year, a new Children's Code (Venezuela, 1998c) established criminal responsibility for adolescents (ages 12 to 17). However, the adolescent criminal justice system is administratively separate from the adult criminal justice system. Adolescents who turn 18 during adjudication or sentencing continue under the adolescent justice system. (Birkbeck) Police Denmark The state police is a department of the Ministry of Justice. There is no longer a municipal police and the military police only has authority over soldiers according to the Military Criminal Code. Denmark is divided into 54 police districts (excluding the Faeroe Islands and Greenland), each headed by a local chief of police. The National Commissioner reports to the Minister of Justice. For administrative purposes the police are subdivided into plain-clothes criminal investigators, uniformed patrolmen, traffic police officers, immigration police, and other categories. (Ravn) The common police of Denmark consist of 12 districts each managed by a director and two minor districts in Greenland and the Faroe Islands, run by a chief of police. The mission statement of the Danish police is as follows: The police must work in order to ensure security, safety, peace and order in the society. The police must promote this purpose through preventive, helping and enforcing work. In addition to the regular districts, there are three other organizations that work outside the common police. Rigspolitiet is the state national police for Denmark. Politiets Efterretningstjeneste, also called PET, is the national security intelligence agency of Denmark. The agency focuses solely upon domestic security while foreign intelligence operations are handled by Forsvarets Efterretningstjeneste – an intelligence branch under the Danish military. The stated overall purpose of PET is to prevent, investigate and counter operations and activities that pose or may pose a threat to the preservation of Denmark as a free, democratic and safe country. The three main duties of the PET are counter terrorism, counter extremism and counter espionage. Politiets Aktionsstyrke (AKS) is the Special Forces unit of the Danish police; a national SWAT team. It is meant to handle extraordinarily difficult or life-threatening criminal situations, such as terrorism, hostage situations, and kidnapping. It also deals with emergency rescue situations that would be too dangerous for others to handle. The AKS holds responsibility for all anti-terror and counter-terrorism missions in Denmark. (Wikipedia) New recruits are required to be in good physical condition; good personal and economic condition, and should have achieved good grades in school. New recruits are usually required to be between 21 and 29 years of age, of Danish citizenship or have applied for Danish nationality/citizenship, and without any convictions. The basic training of police personnel takes 3 years. The training comprises both school education and training of a more practical nature. School education, which consists of 2 courses of 8 months each, takes place at the Police Academy in Copenhagen. The rest of the training time is spent on the job. The Police Academy also presents special courses and leadership courses. All chiefs of police hold a master's degree in law from a university. (Ravn) Venezuela The national Venezuelan police are the Cuerpo Tecnico de Policia Judicial, or PTJ. They were founded almost immediately after the overthrow of Dictator Marcos Perez Jiminez in 1958. The PTJ is the primary judicial police force in the country, charged with the reception of crime reports made by citizens, the investigation of crimes, gathering of evidence and arrest of suspects. In all these tasks, the PTJ is subordinated to the public prosecutor's office. Administratively, the PTJ is attached to the Ministry of the Interior and Justice. The national headquarters are in Caracas, and there is one office in each state capital, with additional offices in some other cities. The PTJ's name was recently changed to the National Directorate of Criminal Investigation. The traffic police (Cuerpo Tecnico de Vigilancia del Transito y Transporte Terrestre), administratively attached to the Ministry of Infrastructure, are responsible for surveillance, preliminary investigation and occasionally arresting suspects, in traffic offenses that involve violations of the criminal law. The state police are responsible for patrol work and public order, arrests (when offenders are caught in the act), and community service. They may also serve as auxiliary judicial police. Each force is regulated by a local Police Code. To further complicate the institutional environment, state police forces are also coordinated by an office in the Ministry of the Interior and Justice that compiles selected statistics and sets guidelines for internal procedures. Beginning in 1990, wealthier municipalities in the country's largest cities set up municipal police forces. By July 2001, there were 77 municipal forces in the country. They are attached to the mayors' offices and regulated by the state's Police Code and by municipal ordinance. With so many different uniformed police forces, there are obviously difficulties in coordination and efficiency. For that reason, since at least 1977 there have been diverse proposals to create a unified national police force. The most recent is the National Police Law, which is currently being debated in the National Assembly. This law would join all uniformed police forces (state, Capital District, municipal), together with the traffic police, into one national force. (Birkbeck) Courts Denmark The independent courts constitute a part of the division of power in Denmark. Generally speaking, cases are dealt with in the first instance by a local or city court; appeals against the judgments of city courts are made to one of the country's two High Courts. A few big cases and cases touching on administrative matters are dealt with by one of the high courts in the first instance. The highest court in Denmark is the Supreme Court, and the Queen appoints judges. (Ministry) The Danish Supreme Court is the highest civil and criminal court responsible for the administration of justice in Denmark. The Kingdom of Denmark, consisting of Denmark, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, does not have a single unified judicial system – Denmark has one system, Greenland another and the Faroe Island a third. However, ecisions by the highest courts in Greenland and the Faroe Islands may be appealed to the Danish High Courts. Venezuela Venezuela has three types of main courts: Trial courts: The 395 trial courts are divided into first instance trial courts and instructional criminal courts. In addition, 667 departmental and municipal courts are assigned the lowest level cases. Superior Courts: There are 173 Superior courts that primarily act as interme diate appellate courts. The dispersion of these courts throughout the country is based on population and political needs. Supreme Court: The Supreme Court is the court of last resort. It is composed of 15 justices who each serve a nine-year term. This Court is divided into three chambers: civil, criminal, and civil rights. (Salas, Luis) They also have several types of special courts: Military Courts: Military courts exercise a considerable amount of authority since their jurisdiction extends to all crimes committed by members of the armed forces and on-duty police officers. Many persons have criticized this system, viewing it as a barrier to the successful prosecution of human rights abuses committed by the police and military. Military courts extend their jurisdiction to civilians accused of crimes under the military code, for example treason or subversion. Anti-corruption Court: The anti-corruption court (Tribunal de Salvaguardia Del Patrimonio Publico) was established with specific and sometimes extraordinary powers, to investigate and punish corruption. While corruption cases may be tried in the first instance by the traditional court system, these special courts have second instance jurisdiction. They also serve as trial courts for cases involving corruption by high-level officials. Even though their jurisdictional powers are extensive, they have been afforded meager resources to carry out their responsibilities. Family/Juvenile Courts: Another set of courts handle family matters and juvenile cases. Juveniles are processed through special courts and then remanded to juvenile correctional facilities. (Salas) Corrections Denmark In Denmark, the correctional service controls 15 prisons, one institution for inmates needing psychiatric treatment, and 40 local jails. Five of the prisons and the psychiatric institution are closed in that they are secured by an external ring wall as well as by internal precautions like secured buildings, and electronic security systems combined with relatively dense staffing. The staff does not carry arms. Being used as remand detention institutions, the local jails are also closed. The remaining nine prisons are open institutions which actually means that the inmates are physically able to leave the institution. Two of the closed prisons have both male and female inmates. In one of these prisons there is cohabitation between men and women within units. There are also two open prison departments for women. While serving his sentence the inmate is obliged to work for which he is paid a small hourly salary. The prison administration tries to ensure that the working places equate those found in modern society. In order to encourage inmates to educate themselves the same amount is paid to inmates who choose to go to the prison school instead of going to work. The prison provides health care and necessary dental care. Sick inmates will be hospitalized in ordinary hospitals. The policies of the correctional service are governed by the following three principles: A. Normalization. As a starting point the inmate is placed in the open prison closest to his home in order to preserve family contacts and to pave the way for a gradual release from the prison. There must be specific reasons for instituting control of inmates' correspondence. Visits by next-of-kin take place in secluded visiting rooms with a couch. In the open prisons weekend leaves are granted every third week to prisoners with a low risk of recidivism. A prisoner in a closed institution may obtain similar rights to weekend leave when he has served one fourth of his sentence. At some time during incarceration about one third of the prisoners in closed prisons are granted occasional leaves. The total number of leaves per year is about 57,000. More than half of these are so-called work leaves where an inmate leaves the prison to go to work or to take part in educational activities in society. B. Self-administration. The inmate is responsible for his own daily life. Important elements of this approach are that food must be bought and cooked by the inmate to which end he is paid a fixed amount of money per day. The inmate is also responsible for his personal hygiene, clothes' laundry and repair. The prison encourages the inmates to make meaningful use of leisure hours by providing opportunity for sports and other structuralized activities. C. Release on parole and after-care. According to a provision of the Criminal Code more than 90% of the inmates are released on parole after having served two thirds of their sentences. Almost 10% of these will be released after serving between one half and two thirds of the time, due to special grounds. Royal pardon is possible according to the Constitution, but rare. Outside of imprisonment for life which necessitates the use of pardoning, royal pardon is more commonly used in connection with short-term sentences where the convicted cannot endure the prison stay because of severe illness or the like. In such cases the pardon is normally conditioned on the payment of a fine. (Dr. Winslow, Robert) Venezuela Typical penalties in Venezuela include fines, restitution, probation, and incarceration. Some crimes carry mandatory prison sentences which prohibit early release. The death penalty in Venezuela was abolished in the mid 1860s. The prison population in Venezuela is 40% over its stated capacity. Overcrowding is regarded as a primary factor in the high level of violence within prisons, which resulted in an average of 3 prisoner deaths per week in 1992. Venezuela, like many of its Latin American countries, has incorporated the United Nation's â€Å"Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners† in its national legislation. However, a recent human rights director of the Venezuelan Attorney General's Office has criticized the conditions of the nation's prisons. As a consequence of government neglect, the prisoners live in overcrowded and unhealthy quarters, without access to education, and lacking incentives to seek jobs once they are released. (Salas) References Birkbeck, Christopher Venezuela World Fact Book of Criminal Justice Systems http://www. ojp. usdoj. gov/bjs/pub/ascii/wfcjsvz. txt CIA: World Fact Book https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/da. html Embassy of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela In the United States of America http://www. embavenezus. org/? pagina=kids. venezuela/political. system. tm=Venezuela%20for%20Kids Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Denmark http://www. ambmoskva. um. dk/en/menu/InfoDenmark/danish+political+and+social+affairs/ Ravn, Lene Denmark World Fact Book of Criminal Justice Systems http://www. ojp. usdoj. gov/bjs/pub/ascii/wfbcjden. txt Salas, Luis Florida International University Venezuela World Fact Book of Criminal Justice http://www. ojp. usdoj. gov/bjs/pub/ascii/wfbcjve n. txt Visit Denmark http://www. visitdenmark. com/uk/en-gb/menu/turist/turistinformation/fakta-az/ Wikipedia www. en. wikipedia. org Dr. Winslow, Robert San Diego State University Crime and Society

Strong women are prevalent in our culture. For example,...

Strong women are prevalent in our culture. For example, Helen Keller, was blind and deaf, but still made an impact on our society. Other examples of strong women include Harriet Tubman and Amelia Earhart. The book, The Odyssey, is no different; there are many strong women in this book, Circe and the Sirens are examples of this. These women are all strong because they possess various traits, such as Harrit Tubmans detrmantion and the Sirens beautiful voices, along with the knowledge to put them into effect. The Sirens and Circe hold certain character traits, some of which they share, and others they differ on. Circe is one of the strong women in this book. Circe is an immortal who can do simple magic. When Ulysses and his men†¦show more content†¦Because of the sweet talk, Circe promised Ulysses immorality, as long as he was living on the island with her and agreed to return the men back to humans. Circe carried out her promis, his men were turned back into humans. Ulysses a nd all of his men then returned to the ship and sailed away before Circe changed her mind, also Ulysses wanted to return to Ithaca, his home country. Circe is not the only strong women in The Odyssey; the Sirens are a set of sisters that are also strong in this book. The Sirens are two sisters with beautiful voices that draw men to them. Once a man hears their voices, he is unable escape, if he hears their voice he will be drawn to them, doing whatever it takes to get to the island they are living on. Once a man reaches the island of the sisters, they take the bones of the men and use then to make drums, which are a part of their music. These two sisters have the faces of young girls, but the bodies of birds. Because the Sirens are so powerful, if any man hears their voices all the men will be dragged to their island. To prevent this Ulysses plugs his men’s ears with beeswax. Ulysses, however keeps his own ears unplugged to be able to hear the sound going on around him, Ulyss es has his men tie him to the mast so he is unable to escape. Because of the beautiful voices he is bloody from trying to get to the women; his men cannot fathom as toShow MoreRelatedEssay on Ulysses by James Joyce1157 Words   |  5 PagesUlysses by James Joyce Many novelists directly reflect their life stories and personal circumstances in their works, so closely that the works may seem autobiographical. Although there are autobiographical parallels between James Joyces life and that of his characters in Ulysses, the novels scattered autobiographical details are more in the line of delightful puzzles to be ferreted out, rather than direct insights into Joyces life. What is really important in Ulysses is not the ties toRead More Ulysses by Alfred Tennyson Essay1228 Words   |  5 PagesUlysses by Alfred Tennyson Ulysses is both a lament and an inspiring poem. 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Montage in Films and Music Videos Essay - 2457 Words

In the 1920s, artist like Sergei Eisenstein, Dziga Vertov and Vsevolod Pudovkin started experimenting with the new technique in their abstractfilms which is known as montage. Montage which is a synonym for Editing is a technique where two or more shots are juxtaposed which create a new meaning thatis not existent looking at the shots individually (Manovich, 2001). Few of the early examples of films using this technique are The Battleship Potemkin(1925) by Eisenstein and Man with a Movie Camera(1929) by Vertov.Montages are widely used in many other TV production areas like Advertisement, Dramas, News Programs and Music Videos. The Music Videos make excessive use of montages for the imagery in theirsongs; one of the examples is The Buggles-†¦show more content†¦Duke (James Garner) narrates the story to Allie (Gena Rowlands) and with help of smooth editing the scene blends smoothly into the sequence of shots related to the narration. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EbfAvKjqo4Efe ature=related The music video,Michael Jackson- Black or White (1991) is a non-narrative montage of sequences in which Jackson dances with people from different parts of the world (African, South East Asian, Native American, Indian, and Russian). There are scenes where Jackson is matted on sequence of Statue of Liberty and the footage of burning cross. These visuals when related with the lyrics or music bring the feeling of emotional state among audienceabout multicultural and multi-racial globalism. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mqZnxvAPkL8 Another difference between editing in films and music videos is that classical Hollywood films are more realistic, which means that the technique used in the production is kept invisible to show the continuity of shots in order to drive the narrative. While music videos are influenced by the Avant-grade film making where montage breaks the continuity rules, 180 ° rule, eye line match, match action and establishing shot. These disjointed shots leave the action incomplete jumping from one shot to another. The video turns into a puzzle because of the frequent gaps into the flow of narration (May, 2005). 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